An EHR should help you do two things really well:
But anyone who’s used more than one electronic health record system knows that the type of tool makes all the difference.
Jonathan Ilicki, medical doctor and author of the newsletter Emmetropia, writes that the problem with many EHRs is their complexity. It’s reached a point where clinicians come up with their own mental gymnastics just to cope.
In Ilicki’s case, that meant doing the exact opposite of what the system told him to do. He writes:
If the EHR instructs me to ‘write your number here’—then I shouldn’t write my number there. If the pager system asks me to wait—then I shouldn’t wait. How much time do healthcare systems waste on bizarre IT errors that benefit no one?
Which brings us to a bigger question: if paid systems are already overwhelming, can free EHR software actually help? In many cases — yes.
So, how can a free EHR system could be helpful if users are struggling with paid ones?
Let's dig into that answer and unpack free electronic medical record (EMR) and EHR software and some great tools — according to real clinicians.
💡 For a broader look at paid and free options, see our 17 best ehr software by practice, size, and specialty.
It's in the name: Free EMR and EHR software gives healthcare providers the fundamental capabilities of the platform — without subscription fees.
You can use free software to perform a good chunk of your daily workload. This includes features like:
Not bad, right?
Small practices and independent clinicians get the convenience and tech-enabled support needed to get their work done without the heavy commitment of an enterprise subscription. It’s a good choice if you’re not looking for dedicated features for customization, integrations, security, or high-volume needs.
Some free EHR software is open‑source code that anyone can download, modify, and run without licensing fees. The community behind the project maintains updates, security patches, and new features. Because the source is visible, you retain full control over data storage, custom workflows, and integrations.
According to a study from the National Library of Medicine, open-source EHR systems have been particularly popular with community health clinics, small practices, and under-capitalized hospitals in both the United States and other countries.
There are also popular enterprise electronic health record software that offers free plans with a limited set of features or limited access to all features. When it comes to these tools, it pays off to read the fine print. You don’t want to miss canceling a free trial before a big invoice hits the top of your inbox.
Although a tight budget is often the main reason why you would opt for free EHR software, price isn’t the only benefit. Beyond the zero cost of entry, here are some other reasons that make a free tool worth considering:
A free EMR will do the job, but it’s not going to completely transform the way you work. It’s an electric scooter, but it’s not a car. It’ll get you from one place to another, but the distance you’ll cover is limited.
Here are what some real medical professionals on Reddit have to say about free sofware:
So yes, free EHR and EMR software can be great if you’re just getting started or need a short-term solution. But if you’re looking for long-term scalability, regulatory compliance, automation, and hands-on support, a paid option will help you avoid costly upgrades or issues later.
💡 For a deeper dive into the difference between EMR and EHR, read our guide on emr vs. ehr: what's the difference?
A review published in 2022 compared major electronic health record systems using the ISO/IEC 25010 software quality framework. The result? A clearer picture of the eight features that matter to clinicians and medical IT staff.
To avoid situations as described by Ilicki, here’s what to look for:
Some free EMR and EHR systems actually do a solid job of meeting these criteria.
So if you’re shopping for an EHR (free or otherwise), don’t just ask what features it has. Ask how well it delivers on these eight fundamentals.
💡To explore EHR integrations, read our guide.

Cost: Free (self-hosted). Cloud-hosted options may require additional setup and hosting fees depending on the platform.
OpenEMR is a free, open-source EHR and practice management system that offers customizable features, a modular settings menu, and broad flexibility for a medical practice with existing technical resources. It supports charting, patient scheduling, and basic billing service capabilities. Users have the flexibility to enable or disable features of their choice and toggle integrations to customize the platform. Open EMR is frequently updated by an active community of developers and users.
One user from a solo internal medicine practice describes OpenEMR as a tool that can be “can be integrated with essentially any other system” and is “infinitely customizable,” but setting up custom interfaces and maintaining the platform requires technical resources. OpenEMR does not include built-in electronic prescribing or robust revenue cycle management tools, so many users rely on external tools or services to fill these gaps.

Cost: Free for self-hosted software. Cloud-hosted options may require additional setup and hosting fees depending on the platform.
OpenMRS is a free, open-source electronic medical record system designed to support healthcare delivery for any medical practice with limited resources. The platform allows users to build and customize their own EMR setup, offering tools for charting, patient management, lab and pharmacy systems, medical billing, and in-patient care.
The system includes a flexible “concept dictionary” that helps users manage a wide range of data, like lab results, patient notes, and social information, without needing to change the database structure. OpenMRS supports custom templates and integrates with other healthcare systems using REST or FHIR APIs. It also includes clinical decision support features, such as alerts and reminders, to help reduce errors and improve care quality. A psychiatrist at a mental health practice highlights the platform’s customizability as the biggest value driver as opposed to just its low price point.

Cost: Free for solo practice physicians. Paid plans start at $25/month per provider.
Hippocrate is a free, cloud-based EHR platform for solo practice physicians. It offers tools for charting, scheduling, lab and imaging integration, e-prescribing, and telemedicine. The system supports ICD-10 coding and allows patient records, test results, and prescriptions to be managed in one place.
The platform includes tools for provider collaboration, allowing secure referrals and communication between specialists. It also key features for solo practitioners, like patient databases, self-service portals, and appointment scheduling. User reviews also call out the software’s ease of use and customizability.

Cost: Free
FreeMED is a free, open-source electronic medical record and practice management system built with Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP), Apache, and MySQL. It runs in any web browser and supports multiple languages, including French, Japanese, and German. The system uses a modular structure to manage patient data, making it adaptable to different clinical needs.
Key features of the tool include scheduling, prescription writing, document management, billing service, and claims processing. It offers XML-RPC web services, HL7 support, and a built-in device interface. FreeMED also supports PDF form templating, internal messaging, and integrates with external billing tools like REMIT. The platform is designed to be extensible and HIPAA-compliant but typically requires IT expertise to implement and maintain.

Cost: Free. Requires a free Ottehr account to run out-of-the-box but technical setup may vary.
Ottehr is a modern, modular EHR system originally developed as a reference project for Oystehr, a developer platform for health technology. It now serves as the foundation for production-ready EHR installations. Users on Reddit have highlighted the platform as an alternative to popular open source tools like Open EMR. The system includes two apps: a patient portal for appointments, intake, and telehealth access, and a staff-facing EHR for managing scheduling, virtual queues, charting, e-prescribing, and care plans.
Key features include telehealth, remote monitoring, patient messaging (SMS and chat), intake forms, appointment management, and eRx. The system supports multi-location scheduling and real-time queue tracking. Ottehr’s modular front end is built for customization and is designed for developers to adapt or white-label for new EHR or health-tech projects. Ottehr requires technical expertise to deploy and may be best suited for developer teams or clinics with IT resources.

Cost: Free
OSCAR EMR is an open-source electronic medical record system developed at McMaster University. The software includes core features such as patient record management, appointment scheduling, medical billing, e-prescribing, and secure messaging. Additional tools include chronic disease management, inventory tracking, lab result viewing, health summaries, and support for provincial billing systems. The system integrates with services like OLIS, HRM, and drug databases, and is compatible with mobile devices. OSCAR can be hosted on-premise or in the cloud and offers flexible configuration options.
While OSCAR is supported by a large open-source community, setup and maintenance often require IT involvement or third-party support.

Cost: Free for up to 3 clients. Paid plans start at $39/month (30-day free trial available).
Sessions Health is a cloud-based EHR built for mental health professionals. It includes tools for scheduling, billing, telehealth, intake forms, progress notes, and secure messaging. The platform also offers automated appointment reminders, insurance claims submission, and a client portal for document sharing and payments.
Users highlight its intuitive layout, customizable templates, and responsive customer support. A licensed social worker using the platform says that Sessions Health “really feels designed for the therapist, with user experience front and center.” It supports electronic signatures, two-way calendar syncing, and integrated telehealth. Many users find it comparable to larger platforms at a more affordable price.

Cost: Free for up to 50 patient encounters/month. Paid plans start at $25/month for additional usage and features.
CharmHealth is a cloud-based EHR and practice management system designed for affordability and ease of use. Its free plan includes core EHR tools, patient charting, appointment scheduling, patient portal access, and basic practice management features.
The platform works across devices and browsers, making it accessible for providers on the go. A solo practitioner using the platform shares that the platform has been a time saver for her. “It meets HIPAA guidelines, generates personalized templates for supplement protocols, has templates for visit types/different charts, and it is free until you have over 50 clients regularly coming in monthly,” she says.
Users also appreciate its clean interface, customizable settings, and growing library of how-to resources. While the free tier may be limiting for high-volume clinics, many small practices find CharmHealth a strong entry point.

Cost: Free plan for limited features and unlimited clients.
Carepatron is a cloud-based EHR and practice management platform built for solo practitioners and small teams. Its free plan includes key features like client scheduling, secure video calls, automated billing and payments, a client portal, and live customer support.
Users value its intuitive interface, strong telehealth integration, and calendar syncing across devices. The platform also offers note-taking, invoicing, and customizable forms. A medical doctor using the platform shares how Carepatron provides the best free HIPAA compliant document management system. “It provides the ability to securely send documents to my patients for electronic signatures for free — I do not know of other free options like this,” he says.
While the system is easy to set up and use daily, some users report limitations with template downloads and form customization.

Cost: Free plan available for up to 10 active clients. Paid plans start at $49/month.
Healthie is a cloud-based EHR and practice management platform designed for wellness, nutrition, and mental health providers. The free plan includes HIPAA-compliant charting, appointment scheduling, secure messaging, telehealth, and a client portal with food and activity tracking.
Users highlight the platform’s affordability, clean design, and flexibility for virtual practices. It supports 1-on-1 and group sessions, client metrics, and document sharing, with built-in tools for intake, SOAP notes, billing, and communication. The platform also integrates with apps like Stripe, Zoom, and Fullscript. While Healthie offers strong value, some users report a learning curve with certain tools and occasional glitches in the mobile app.
Transitioning to a new EHR system is a strategic undertaking for any healthcare organization, requiring thoughtful preparation, strong leadership, and meticulous execution.
An effective implementation roadmap lays the groundwork for project success — it makes sure that clinical needs are addressed, risks are minimized, and users are fully supported throughout adoption.
Here are some best practices for deploying EHR platforms in settings ranging from small practices to enterprise health networks, with particular focus on open-source solutions:
Careful attention to these steps helps clinics unlock the flexibility and long-term benefits of open-source EHR systems while safeguarding patient data, maintaining compliance, and ensuring a smooth technology transition.
Maintaining security and compliance with free EHR software is one of — if not the most important — responsibility for healthcare organizations, especially if you're opting for open-source platforms.
Federal guidance from the CMS stresses that accurate, complete EHR documentation and strong audit controls are core to safe, compliant use of electronic health records — including features like immutable audit logs, access time‑outs, and periodic review of documentation integrity. Here are some of the most important features to look for with respect to security and compliance with free EHR software:
In the U.S., HIPAA sets precise rules for electronic protected health information (ePHI) and demands risk assessments, technical safeguards, and evidence of compliance.
Open-source and free EHR implementations are expected to follow the same regulatory standards as paid alternatives, including regular security reviews and incident response planning. Keeping up with regulatory updates and ensuring the EHR remains aligned with ONC and CMS requirements is crucial, whether through self-management or by working with specialized vendors.
With these measures, healthcare practices using free EHR software can strike the right balance between accessibility, affordability, and compliance—achieving high standards of data protection while maintaining clinical efficiency.
If there’s one thing these user reviews have made clear, it’s that free EMR and EHR software can absolutely get the job done. especially for small practices, solo providers, or clinics just getting off the ground. Many of these platforms offer impressive features right out of the box for small practices and solo practitioners, like appointment scheduling, secure messaging, charting tools, telehealth, billing, and even patient portals.
But as with anything free, there are trade-offs. Some tools lack customer support or require heavier reliance on an IT department. Others may feel clunky or rely on third-party add-ons.
So, use free to its advantage. Try out what’s available, take the time to assess your workflows, and don’t commit to pricey upgrades until you feel 100% confident. For many practices, pairing the right EHR with ambient clinical intelligence tools is what finally breaks the trade‑off between thorough documentation and face‑to‑face patient time.
No matter which EHR you end up with, Freed is here to help reduce the clerical clutter. It integrates seamlessly with any browser-based EHR using a free Chrome extension with easy copy-and-paste functionality for your clinical notes.
If you’re ready to explore a free EHR that gives you control without the price tag, learn more about how Freed partners with clinicians to unlock the full potential of open‑source EHRs.
An EHR should help you do two things really well:
But anyone who’s used more than one electronic health record system knows that the type of tool makes all the difference.
Jonathan Ilicki, medical doctor and author of the newsletter Emmetropia, writes that the problem with many EHRs is their complexity. It’s reached a point where clinicians come up with their own mental gymnastics just to cope.
In Ilicki’s case, that meant doing the exact opposite of what the system told him to do. He writes:
If the EHR instructs me to ‘write your number here’—then I shouldn’t write my number there. If the pager system asks me to wait—then I shouldn’t wait. How much time do healthcare systems waste on bizarre IT errors that benefit no one?
Which brings us to a bigger question: if paid systems are already overwhelming, can free EHR software actually help? In many cases — yes.
So, how can a free EHR system could be helpful if users are struggling with paid ones?
Let's dig into that answer and unpack free electronic medical record (EMR) and EHR software and some great tools — according to real clinicians.
💡 For a broader look at paid and free options, see our 17 best ehr software by practice, size, and specialty.
It's in the name: Free EMR and EHR software gives healthcare providers the fundamental capabilities of the platform — without subscription fees.
You can use free software to perform a good chunk of your daily workload. This includes features like:
Not bad, right?
Small practices and independent clinicians get the convenience and tech-enabled support needed to get their work done without the heavy commitment of an enterprise subscription. It’s a good choice if you’re not looking for dedicated features for customization, integrations, security, or high-volume needs.
Some free EHR software is open‑source code that anyone can download, modify, and run without licensing fees. The community behind the project maintains updates, security patches, and new features. Because the source is visible, you retain full control over data storage, custom workflows, and integrations.
According to a study from the National Library of Medicine, open-source EHR systems have been particularly popular with community health clinics, small practices, and under-capitalized hospitals in both the United States and other countries.
There are also popular enterprise electronic health record software that offers free plans with a limited set of features or limited access to all features. When it comes to these tools, it pays off to read the fine print. You don’t want to miss canceling a free trial before a big invoice hits the top of your inbox.
Although a tight budget is often the main reason why you would opt for free EHR software, price isn’t the only benefit. Beyond the zero cost of entry, here are some other reasons that make a free tool worth considering:
A free EMR will do the job, but it’s not going to completely transform the way you work. It’s an electric scooter, but it’s not a car. It’ll get you from one place to another, but the distance you’ll cover is limited.
Here are what some real medical professionals on Reddit have to say about free sofware:
So yes, free EHR and EMR software can be great if you’re just getting started or need a short-term solution. But if you’re looking for long-term scalability, regulatory compliance, automation, and hands-on support, a paid option will help you avoid costly upgrades or issues later.
💡 For a deeper dive into the difference between EMR and EHR, read our guide on emr vs. ehr: what's the difference?
A review published in 2022 compared major electronic health record systems using the ISO/IEC 25010 software quality framework. The result? A clearer picture of the eight features that matter to clinicians and medical IT staff.
To avoid situations as described by Ilicki, here’s what to look for:
Some free EMR and EHR systems actually do a solid job of meeting these criteria.
So if you’re shopping for an EHR (free or otherwise), don’t just ask what features it has. Ask how well it delivers on these eight fundamentals.
💡To explore EHR integrations, read our guide.

Cost: Free (self-hosted). Cloud-hosted options may require additional setup and hosting fees depending on the platform.
OpenEMR is a free, open-source EHR and practice management system that offers customizable features, a modular settings menu, and broad flexibility for a medical practice with existing technical resources. It supports charting, patient scheduling, and basic billing service capabilities. Users have the flexibility to enable or disable features of their choice and toggle integrations to customize the platform. Open EMR is frequently updated by an active community of developers and users.
One user from a solo internal medicine practice describes OpenEMR as a tool that can be “can be integrated with essentially any other system” and is “infinitely customizable,” but setting up custom interfaces and maintaining the platform requires technical resources. OpenEMR does not include built-in electronic prescribing or robust revenue cycle management tools, so many users rely on external tools or services to fill these gaps.

Cost: Free for self-hosted software. Cloud-hosted options may require additional setup and hosting fees depending on the platform.
OpenMRS is a free, open-source electronic medical record system designed to support healthcare delivery for any medical practice with limited resources. The platform allows users to build and customize their own EMR setup, offering tools for charting, patient management, lab and pharmacy systems, medical billing, and in-patient care.
The system includes a flexible “concept dictionary” that helps users manage a wide range of data, like lab results, patient notes, and social information, without needing to change the database structure. OpenMRS supports custom templates and integrates with other healthcare systems using REST or FHIR APIs. It also includes clinical decision support features, such as alerts and reminders, to help reduce errors and improve care quality. A psychiatrist at a mental health practice highlights the platform’s customizability as the biggest value driver as opposed to just its low price point.

Cost: Free for solo practice physicians. Paid plans start at $25/month per provider.
Hippocrate is a free, cloud-based EHR platform for solo practice physicians. It offers tools for charting, scheduling, lab and imaging integration, e-prescribing, and telemedicine. The system supports ICD-10 coding and allows patient records, test results, and prescriptions to be managed in one place.
The platform includes tools for provider collaboration, allowing secure referrals and communication between specialists. It also key features for solo practitioners, like patient databases, self-service portals, and appointment scheduling. User reviews also call out the software’s ease of use and customizability.

Cost: Free
FreeMED is a free, open-source electronic medical record and practice management system built with Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP), Apache, and MySQL. It runs in any web browser and supports multiple languages, including French, Japanese, and German. The system uses a modular structure to manage patient data, making it adaptable to different clinical needs.
Key features of the tool include scheduling, prescription writing, document management, billing service, and claims processing. It offers XML-RPC web services, HL7 support, and a built-in device interface. FreeMED also supports PDF form templating, internal messaging, and integrates with external billing tools like REMIT. The platform is designed to be extensible and HIPAA-compliant but typically requires IT expertise to implement and maintain.

Cost: Free. Requires a free Ottehr account to run out-of-the-box but technical setup may vary.
Ottehr is a modern, modular EHR system originally developed as a reference project for Oystehr, a developer platform for health technology. It now serves as the foundation for production-ready EHR installations. Users on Reddit have highlighted the platform as an alternative to popular open source tools like Open EMR. The system includes two apps: a patient portal for appointments, intake, and telehealth access, and a staff-facing EHR for managing scheduling, virtual queues, charting, e-prescribing, and care plans.
Key features include telehealth, remote monitoring, patient messaging (SMS and chat), intake forms, appointment management, and eRx. The system supports multi-location scheduling and real-time queue tracking. Ottehr’s modular front end is built for customization and is designed for developers to adapt or white-label for new EHR or health-tech projects. Ottehr requires technical expertise to deploy and may be best suited for developer teams or clinics with IT resources.

Cost: Free
OSCAR EMR is an open-source electronic medical record system developed at McMaster University. The software includes core features such as patient record management, appointment scheduling, medical billing, e-prescribing, and secure messaging. Additional tools include chronic disease management, inventory tracking, lab result viewing, health summaries, and support for provincial billing systems. The system integrates with services like OLIS, HRM, and drug databases, and is compatible with mobile devices. OSCAR can be hosted on-premise or in the cloud and offers flexible configuration options.
While OSCAR is supported by a large open-source community, setup and maintenance often require IT involvement or third-party support.

Cost: Free for up to 3 clients. Paid plans start at $39/month (30-day free trial available).
Sessions Health is a cloud-based EHR built for mental health professionals. It includes tools for scheduling, billing, telehealth, intake forms, progress notes, and secure messaging. The platform also offers automated appointment reminders, insurance claims submission, and a client portal for document sharing and payments.
Users highlight its intuitive layout, customizable templates, and responsive customer support. A licensed social worker using the platform says that Sessions Health “really feels designed for the therapist, with user experience front and center.” It supports electronic signatures, two-way calendar syncing, and integrated telehealth. Many users find it comparable to larger platforms at a more affordable price.

Cost: Free for up to 50 patient encounters/month. Paid plans start at $25/month for additional usage and features.
CharmHealth is a cloud-based EHR and practice management system designed for affordability and ease of use. Its free plan includes core EHR tools, patient charting, appointment scheduling, patient portal access, and basic practice management features.
The platform works across devices and browsers, making it accessible for providers on the go. A solo practitioner using the platform shares that the platform has been a time saver for her. “It meets HIPAA guidelines, generates personalized templates for supplement protocols, has templates for visit types/different charts, and it is free until you have over 50 clients regularly coming in monthly,” she says.
Users also appreciate its clean interface, customizable settings, and growing library of how-to resources. While the free tier may be limiting for high-volume clinics, many small practices find CharmHealth a strong entry point.

Cost: Free plan for limited features and unlimited clients.
Carepatron is a cloud-based EHR and practice management platform built for solo practitioners and small teams. Its free plan includes key features like client scheduling, secure video calls, automated billing and payments, a client portal, and live customer support.
Users value its intuitive interface, strong telehealth integration, and calendar syncing across devices. The platform also offers note-taking, invoicing, and customizable forms. A medical doctor using the platform shares how Carepatron provides the best free HIPAA compliant document management system. “It provides the ability to securely send documents to my patients for electronic signatures for free — I do not know of other free options like this,” he says.
While the system is easy to set up and use daily, some users report limitations with template downloads and form customization.

Cost: Free plan available for up to 10 active clients. Paid plans start at $49/month.
Healthie is a cloud-based EHR and practice management platform designed for wellness, nutrition, and mental health providers. The free plan includes HIPAA-compliant charting, appointment scheduling, secure messaging, telehealth, and a client portal with food and activity tracking.
Users highlight the platform’s affordability, clean design, and flexibility for virtual practices. It supports 1-on-1 and group sessions, client metrics, and document sharing, with built-in tools for intake, SOAP notes, billing, and communication. The platform also integrates with apps like Stripe, Zoom, and Fullscript. While Healthie offers strong value, some users report a learning curve with certain tools and occasional glitches in the mobile app.
Transitioning to a new EHR system is a strategic undertaking for any healthcare organization, requiring thoughtful preparation, strong leadership, and meticulous execution.
An effective implementation roadmap lays the groundwork for project success — it makes sure that clinical needs are addressed, risks are minimized, and users are fully supported throughout adoption.
Here are some best practices for deploying EHR platforms in settings ranging from small practices to enterprise health networks, with particular focus on open-source solutions:
Careful attention to these steps helps clinics unlock the flexibility and long-term benefits of open-source EHR systems while safeguarding patient data, maintaining compliance, and ensuring a smooth technology transition.
Maintaining security and compliance with free EHR software is one of — if not the most important — responsibility for healthcare organizations, especially if you're opting for open-source platforms.
Federal guidance from the CMS stresses that accurate, complete EHR documentation and strong audit controls are core to safe, compliant use of electronic health records — including features like immutable audit logs, access time‑outs, and periodic review of documentation integrity. Here are some of the most important features to look for with respect to security and compliance with free EHR software:
In the U.S., HIPAA sets precise rules for electronic protected health information (ePHI) and demands risk assessments, technical safeguards, and evidence of compliance.
Open-source and free EHR implementations are expected to follow the same regulatory standards as paid alternatives, including regular security reviews and incident response planning. Keeping up with regulatory updates and ensuring the EHR remains aligned with ONC and CMS requirements is crucial, whether through self-management or by working with specialized vendors.
With these measures, healthcare practices using free EHR software can strike the right balance between accessibility, affordability, and compliance—achieving high standards of data protection while maintaining clinical efficiency.
If there’s one thing these user reviews have made clear, it’s that free EMR and EHR software can absolutely get the job done. especially for small practices, solo providers, or clinics just getting off the ground. Many of these platforms offer impressive features right out of the box for small practices and solo practitioners, like appointment scheduling, secure messaging, charting tools, telehealth, billing, and even patient portals.
But as with anything free, there are trade-offs. Some tools lack customer support or require heavier reliance on an IT department. Others may feel clunky or rely on third-party add-ons.
So, use free to its advantage. Try out what’s available, take the time to assess your workflows, and don’t commit to pricey upgrades until you feel 100% confident. For many practices, pairing the right EHR with ambient clinical intelligence tools is what finally breaks the trade‑off between thorough documentation and face‑to‑face patient time.
No matter which EHR you end up with, Freed is here to help reduce the clerical clutter. It integrates seamlessly with any browser-based EHR using a free Chrome extension with easy copy-and-paste functionality for your clinical notes.
If you’re ready to explore a free EHR that gives you control without the price tag, learn more about how Freed partners with clinicians to unlock the full potential of open‑source EHRs.
Frequently asked questions from clinicians and medical practitioners.